概括：这道题是竺墒荡同学的课后英语练习题，主要是关于新加坡小印度，指导老师为季老师。

题目：新加坡小印度

解：

Little India is an ethnic neighbourhood found in Singapore that has Tamil cultural elements .Little India lies to east of the Singapore River —across from Chinatown ,located west of the river—and north of Kampong Glam .Both areas are part of the urban planning area of Rochor .Little India is more commonly known as Tekka in the local Tamil community.

举一反三

例1： 用英语介绍新加坡文化大约60字[英语练习题]

思路提示：

Singapore Culture

Singapore is a cosmopolitan society where people live harmoniously and interaction among different races are commonly seen.The pattern of Singapore stems from the inherent cultural diversity of the island.The immigrants of the past have given the place a mixture of Malay,Chinese,Indian,and European influences,all of which have intermingled.

Behind the facade of a modern city,these ethnic races are still evident.The areas for the different races,which were designated to them by Sir Stamford Raffles,still remain although the bulk of Singaporeans do think of themselves as Singaporeans,regardless of race or culture.Each still bears its own unique character.

The old streets of Chinatown can still be seen; the Muslim characteristics are still conspicuous in Arab Street; and Little India along Serangoon Road still has its distinct ambience.Furthermore,there are marks of the British colonial influence in the Neo-Classical buildings all around the city.

Each racial group has its own distinctive religion and there are colorful festivals of special significance all year round.Although the festivals are special to certain races,it is nonetheless enjoyed by all.

In Singapore,food is also readily and widely available.There are lots of cuisines to offer.We have,Chinese,Indian,Malay,Indonesian and Western,Italian,Peranakan,Spanish,French,Thai and even Fusion.It is very common to savour other culture's food and some of the food can be very intriguing.Indian food are relatively spicier,whereas Chinese food is less spicier and the Chinese enjoy seafood.Malay cooking uses coconut milk as their main ingredient,that makes their food very tasty.

例2： 【印度英文介绍】[英语练习题]

思路提示：

India (/ˈɪndiə/ ( listen)),officially the Republic of India (Hindi:भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also official names of India),is a country in South Asia.It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area,the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people,and the most populous democracy in the world.Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south,the Arabian Sea on the west,and the Bay of Bengal on the east; and it is bordered by Pakistan to the west;[note] Bhutan,the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east.In the Indian Ocean,mainland India and the Lakshadweep Islands are in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives,while India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share maritime border with Thailand and the Indonesian island of Sumatra in the Andaman Sea.India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi).

Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires,the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism,Buddhism,Jainism and Sikhism—originated here,while Zoroastrianism,Judaism,Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture.Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early 18th century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century,India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence which was marked by a non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.

India is a federal constitutional republic with a parliamentary democracy consisting of 28 states and seven union territories.A pluralistic,multilingual and multiethnic society,India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.The Indian economy is the world's eleventh largest economy by nominal GDP and the fourth largest by purchasing power parity.Since the introduction of market-based economic reforms in 1991,India has become one of the fastest growing major economies in the world;however,the country continues to face several poverty,illiteracy,corruption and public health related challenges.India is classified as a newly industrialised country and is one of the four BRIC nations.It is the world's sixth de facto nuclear weapons state and has the third-largest standing armed force in the world,while its military expenditure ranks tenth in the world.India is a regional power in South Asia.

It is a founding member of the United Nations,the Non-Aligned Movement,the World Trade Organization,the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation,the East Asia Summit,the G20 and the G8+5; a member of the Commonwealth of Nations; and an observer state in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.

例3： 【新加坡面试的英语自我介绍】[英语练习题]

思路提示：

给你几篇参考下

Good morning,my dear teachers,my dear professors.i am very glad to be here for your interview.my name is song yonghao,i am 22 years old .i come from luoyang,a very beautiful aicent city.my undergratuade period will be accomplished in changan university in july ,2004;and now,i am trying my best for obtaining a key to tongji university.

generally speaking ,i am a hard working student especially do the thing i am interested in. i will try my best to finish it no matter how difficult it is. when i was sophomore, i found web design very interesting, so i learned it very hard . to weaver a homepage for myself, i stayed with my pesonel computer for half a month.,and i am the first one in my class who own his homepage. forthermore,i am a person with great perserverence. during the days preparing for the first examination,i insist on running every day, no matter what the weather was like.and just owning to this,i could concentrate on my study and succeeded in the end.

well ,in my spare time ,i like basketball, tennis and chinese chess. also english is my favorate.i often go to english corner to practise my oral english on every thursday,and write compositions to improve my witten ability .but i know my english is not good enough ,i will continue studying.

ok, that is all,thank you for your attention

英文自我介绍范文2

Good morning, my name is jack, it is really a great honor to have this opportunity for a interview, I would like to answer whatever you may raise, and I hope I can make a good performance today, eventually enroll in this prestigious university in september. now I will introduce myself briefly,I am 21 years old,born in heilongjiang province ,northeast of china,and I am curruently a senior student at beijing XX uni.my major is packaging engineering.and I will receive my bachelor degree after my graduation in june.in the past 4 years,i spend most of my time on study,I have passed CET4/6 with a ease. and I have acquired basic knowledge of packaging and publishing both in theory and in practice. besides, I have attend

several packaging exhibition hold in Beijing, this is our advantage study here, I have taken a tour to some big factory and company. through these I have a deeply understanding of domestic packaging industry. compared to developed countries such as us, unfortunately, although we have made extraordinary progress since 1978,our packaging industry are still underdeveloped, mess, unstable, the situation of employees in this field are awkard. but I have full confidence in a bright future if only our economy can keep the growth pace still. I guess you maybe interested in the reason itch to law, and what is my plan during graduate study life, I would like to tell you that pursue law is one of my lifelong goal,I like my major packaging and I won't give up,if I can pursue my master degree here I will combine law with my former education. I will work hard in thesefields ,patent ,trademark, copyright, on the base of my years study in department of p&p, my character? I cannot describe it well, but I know I am optimistic and confident. sometimes I prefer to stay alone, reading, listening to music, but I am not lonely, I like to chat with my classmates, almost talk everything ,my favorite pastime is valleyball,playing cards or surf online. through college life,I learn how to balance between study and entertainment. by the way, I was a actor of our amazing drama club. I had a few glorious memory on stage. that is my pride.

英文自我介绍范文3

MY BACKGROUND

I was born in a small village of Shan Dong Province on April 4th, 1968. When I was young, my family was very poor, so I had to work to earn money to help my parents after class when I was in the middle school.

In 1986 I was admitted by University of International Business and Economics (or: UIBE) to pursue a bachelor degree in Economics. My major is accounting in Department of International Business Management. The undergraduate education gave me a wide range of vision and taught me how to cooperate with others. I developed several professional interests in Accounting, Finance, and International Trade.

The following eight-year working experience offered me a good chance to give full play to my creativity, intelligence and diligence. In 1990-1993, I worked as an assistant to funding manager in China National Technical Import and Export Corporation. In 1993-present, I was employed by China Kingdom Import and Export Corporation to be the Manger of Financial and Accounting Division.

I do believe that with my hard early life, solid educational background and ample working experience, I would be an excellent student of you MBA program.

MY PERSONAL ACCOMPLISHMENT:

After graduating from UIBE, I was employed as the assistant to the funding manager by China National Technical Import and Export Corporation. After reading a lot of related files, and analyzing the overall funding situation of the corporation, I found that the loan policy was not been put into effect. So we have thousands of millions RMB loan with very high interest rate while a large amount of cash in bank with very low interest rate was idle. I reported this to my supervisor, and then we studied and revised the loan policy. This revision saved the corporation approximately RMB thirty millions yuan. In order to raise the funding effectiveness, after one year’s hard work, I developed the internal banking system within the corporation based on the actual funding supply and need of the different divisions and projects. This internal banking system made full use of the corporation’ funding resources, and due to this, I was highly praised by the president of the corporation.

WHY CHOOSE YOUR MBA PROGRAM?

After I have worked in business area for eight years, I feel that I need to continue my education by pursuing a Master degree in business administration. I have practiced my professional expertise in accounting, demonstrated my leadership abilities and perfected my communication skills. But I have yet to become an entrepreneur in my own right, and to fully master the art of modern business. I want to be trained more vigorously in scientific methods of analysis and synthesis. There are a lot of opportunities and challenges in China that I do not yet fell fully confident to seize. My business career has so far benefited mostly the companies that I worked for, but a good business education in your university will probably become a new era for me.

Your university is well known for its excellence in China’s business education. I am sure that, with my extensive business experience, I can be a worthy student of yours. I am anxious to benefit from your seasoned guidance and take advantage of your research facilities.

原则1．测试的重点考查的是你运用语言的能力,而不是对你的背景的了解.

2．自信

I am working for a XXXXX company as XXXXX（an assistant manager） in the XXXXX section.(我增经在XXXXX公司的XXXXX部门任XXXXX职位,比如经理助理)．

In the company my job is to XXXX(develop new computer software) and I enjoy the job very much, because XXXX(software development is very creative and imaginative work). 在公司里我的工作是XXXX(开发新的电脑软件),我非常喜欢这个工作,因为XXXXX(软件开发是一项非常需要创造性和想象力的工作.：也就是凸现你有创造性和想象力)

The following XXXXX-year working experience offered me a good chance to give full play to my creativity, intelligence and diligence.(接下来的XXX年的工作经验让我得到了很大的发展)

What's more, I have taken a tour to some big company, through these i have a deeply understanding of XXXXX(computer software industry).(我还参观过一些大公司,通过这些,我对XXXXX(电脑软件工业)有了比较深刻的认识)

I choose to come here because I do think that company would XXXXXX(provide me a more challenge work and better develope chance)

(我选择到这里工作因为我认为公司XXXXX（说他的好处,能给我提供一份更具备挑战性的工作和更好的发展机会）)

I do believe that with my solid educational background and ample working experience, I would be an excellent worker in your company.

（我相信以我过硬的教育背景以及工作经验,我会成为公司中出色的一员）

参考资料：http://zhidao.baidu.com/question/30688329.html?si=8

例4： 谁有印度的介绍?英文的..做课前演讲用...最好有译文...感激不尽..[英语练习题]

思路提示：

"So far as I am able to judge,nothing has been left undone,either by man or nature,to make India the most extraordinary country that the sun visits on his rounds.Nothing seems to have been forgotten,nothing overlooked." --Mark Twain,from Following the Equator

It is impossible not to be astonished by India.Nowhere on Earth does humanity present itself in such a dizzying,creative burst of cultures and religions,races and tongues.Every aspect of the country presents itself on a massive,exaggerated scale,worthy in comparison only to the superlative mountains that overshadow it.Perhaps the only thing more difficult than to be indifferent to India would be to describe or understand India completely.

Location,Geography,& Climate

Set apart from the rest of Asia by the supreme continental wall of the Himalayas,the Indian subcontinent touches three large bodies of water and is immediately recognizable on any world map.It is the huge,terrestrial beak between Africa and Indonesia.This thick,roughly triangular peninsula defines the Bay of Bengal to the east,the Arabian sea to the west,and the India Ocean to the south.

India's puzzleboard of 26 states holds virtually every kind of landscape imaginable.An abundance of mountain ranges and national parks provide ample opportunity for eco-tourism and trekking,and its sheer size promises something for everyone.From its northernmost point on the Chinese border,India extends a good 2000 miles (3200 km) to its southern tip,where the island nation of Sri Lanka seems to be squeezed out of India like a great tear,the synapse forming the Gulf of Mannar.India's northern border is dominated mostly by Nepal and the Himalayas,the world's highest mountain chain.Following the sweeping mountains to the northeast,its borders narrow to a small channel that passes between Nepal,Tibet,Bangladesh,and Bhutan,then spreads out again to meet Burma in area called the "eastern triangle." Apart from the Arabian sea,its western border is defined exclusively by Pakistan.

India can be organized along the compass points.North India,shaped like a throat and two lungs,is the country's largest region.It begins with the panhandle of Jammu and Kashmir,a dynamic area with terrain varying from arid mountains in the far north to the lake country and forests near Sringar and Jammu.Falling south along the Indus river valley,the North becomes flatter and more hospitable,widening into the fertile plains of Punjab to the west and the Himalayan foothills of Uttar Pradesh and the Ganges river valley to the East.Cramped between these two states is the capital city,Delhi.The southwestern extremity of the North is the large state of Rajastan,whose principal features are the Thar Desert and the stunning "pink city" of Jaipur.To the southeast is southern Uttar Pradesh and Agra,home of the famous Taj Mahal.

West India contains the states of Gujarat,Maharashtra,Goa,and part of the massive,central state of Madhya Pradesh.The west coast extends from the Gujarat peninsula down to Goa,and it is lined with some of India's best beaches.The land along the coast is typically lush,with rainforests reaching southward from Bombay all the way to into Goa.A long mountain chain,the Western Ghats,separates the verdant coast from the Vindya mountains and the dry Deccan plateau further inland.

Home of the sacred Ganges river and the majority of Himalayan foothills,East India begins with the states of Madhya Pradesh,Bihar,Orissa,which comprise the westernmost part of the region.East India also contains an area known as the eastern triangle,which is entirely distinct.This is the last gulp of land that extends beyond Bangladesh,culminating in the Naga Hills along the Burmese border.

India reaches its peninsular tip with South India,which begins with the Deccan in the north and ends with Cape Comorin,where Hindus believe that bathing in the waters of the three oceans will wash away their sins.The states in South India are Karnataka,Andhra Pradesh,Tamil Nadu,and Kerala,a favorite leisure destination.The southeast coast,mirroring the west,also rests snugly beneath a mountain range---the Eastern Ghats.

Because of India's size,its climate depends not only on the time of year,but also the location.In general,temperatures tend to be cooler in the north,especially between September and March.The south is coolest between November to January.In June,winds and warm surface currents begin to move northwards and westwards,heading out of the Indian Ocean and into the Arabian Gulf.This creates a phenomenon known as the south-west monsoon,and it brings heavy rains to the west coast.Between October and December,a similar climatic pattern called the north-east monsoon appears in the Bay of Bengal,bringing rains to the east coast.In addition to the two monsoons,there are two other seasons,spring and autumn.

Though the word "monsoon" often brings to mind images of torrential floods and landslides,the monsoon seasons are not bad times to come to India.Though it rains nearly every day,the downpour tends to come and go quickly,leaving behind a clean,glistening landscape.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Culture & People

With nearly 1 billion citizens,India is the second most populous nation in the world.It is impossible to speak of any one Indian culture,although there are deep cultural continuities that tie its people together.English is the major language of trade and politics,but there are fourteen official languages in all.There are twenty-four languages that are spoken by a million people or more,and countless other dialects.India has seven major religions and many minor ones,six main ethnic groups,and countless holidays.

Religion is central to Indian culture,and its practice can be seen in virtually every aspect of life in the country.Hinduism is the dominant faith of India,serving about 80 percent of the population.Ten percent worship Islam,and 5 perscent are Sikhs and Christians; the rest (a good 45 million) are Buddhists,Jains,Bahai,and more.

例5： 有谁能用英文介绍一下印度的各个方面浅显一点的,太少不要太少[英语练习题]

思路提示：

我给你找了些,很全面,希望对你有用:

India

India, officially Republic of India, republic (2005 est pop. 1,080,264,000), 1,261,810 sq mi (3,268,090 sq km), S Asia. The second most populous country in the world, it is also sometimes called Bharat, its ancient name. India's land frontier (c.9,500 mi/15,290 km long) stretches from the Arabian Sea on the west to the Bay of Bengal on the east and touches Pakistan (W); China, Nepal, and Bhutan (N); Bangladesh, which forms an enclave in the northeast; and Myanmar (E). New Delhi is India's capital and Mumbai (formerly Bombay) its largest city.

Land

The southern half of India is a largely upland area that thrusts a triangular peninsula (c.1,300 mi/2,090 km wide at the north) into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west and has a coastline c.3,500 mi (5,630 km) long; at its southern tip is Kanniyakumri (Cape Comorin). In the north, towering above peninsular India, is the Himalayan mountain wall, where rise the three great rivers of the Indian subcontinent—the Indus, the Ganges, and the Brahmaputra.

The Gangetic alluvial plain, which has much of India's arable land, lies between the Himalayas and the dissected plateau occupying most of peninsular India. The Aravalli range, a ragged hill belt, extends from the borders of Gujarat in the southwest to the fringes of Delhi in the northeast. The plain is limited in the west by the Thar (Great Indian) Desert of Rajasthan, which merges with the swampy Rann of Kachchh to the south. The southern boundary of the plain lies close to the Yamuna and Ganges rivers, where the broken hills of the Chambal, Betwa, and Son rivers rise to the low plateaus of Malwa in the west and Chota Nagpur in the east.

The Narmada River, south of the Vindhya hills, marks the beginning of the Deccan. The triangular plateau, scarped by the mountains of the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats, is drained by the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers; they break through the Eastern Ghats and, flowing east into the Bay of Bengal, form broad deltas on the wide Coromandel Coast. Further north, the Mahanadi River drains India into the Bay of Bengal. The much narrower western coast of peninsular India, comprising chiefly the Malabar Coast and the fertile Gujarat plain, bends around the Gulf of Khambat in the north to the Kathiawar and Kachchh peninsulas. The coastal plains of peninsular India have a tropical, humid climate.

The Deccan interior is partly semiarid on the west and wet on the east. The Indo-Gangetic plain is subtropical, with the western interior areas experiencing frost in winter and very hot summers. India's rainfall, which depends upon the monsoon, is variable; it is heavy in Assam and West Bengal and along the southern coasts, moderate in the inland peninsular regions, and scanty in the arid northwest, especially in Rajasthan and Punjab.

The republic is divided into 28 states: Andhra Pradesh; Arunachal Pradesh; Assam; Bihar; Chhattisgarh; Goa; Gujarat; Haryana; Himachal Pradesh; Jammu and Kashmir (see Kashmir); Jharkhand; Karnataka; Kerala; Madhya Pradesh; Maharashtra; Manipur; Meghalaya; Mizoram; Nagaland; Orissa; Punjab; Rajasthan; Sikkim; Tamil Nadu; Tripura; Uttaranchal; Uttar Pradesh; and West Bengal (see Bengal). There are also seven union territories: the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Chandigarh; Dadra and Nagar Haveli; Daman and Diu; Delhi; Lakshadweep; and Pondicherry. Kashmir is disputed with Pakistan.

In 1991, India had 23 cities with urban areas of more than 1 million people: Ahmadabad, Bangalore, Bhopal, Chennai (Madras), Coimbatore, Delhi, Hyderabad, Indore, Jaipur, Kanpur, Kochi (see under Cochin), Kolkata (Calcutta), Lucknow, Ludhiana, Madurai, Mumbai, Nagpur, Patna, Pune, Surat, Vadodara (see under Baroda), Varanasi, and Vishakhapatnam.

People and Culture

India is the world's second most populous nation (after China). Its ethnic composition is complex, but two major strains predominate: the Aryan, in the north, and the Dravidian, in the south. India is a land of great cultural diversity, as is evidenced by the enormous number of different languages spoken throughout the country. Although Hindi (spoken in the north) and English (the language of politics and commerce) are used officially, more than 1,500 languages and dialects are spoken. The Indian constitution recognizes 15 regional languages (Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu). Ten of the major states of India are generally organized along linguistic lines.

Although the constitution forbids the practice of “untouchability,” and legislation has been used to reserve quotas for former untouchables (and also for tribal peoples) in the legislatures, in education, and in the public services, the caste system continues to be influential. About 80% of the population is Hindu, and 14% is Muslim. Other significant religions include Christians, Sikhs, and Buddhists. There is no state religion. The holy cities of India attract pilgrims from throughout the East: Varanasi (formerly Benares), Allahabad, Puri, and Nashik are religious centers for the Hindus; Amritsar is the holy city of the Sikhs; and Satrunjaya Hill near Palitana is sacred to the Jains.

With its long and rich history, India retains many outstanding archaeological landmarks; preeminent of these are the Buddhist remains at Sarnath, Sanchi, and Bodh Gaya; the cave temples at Ajanta, Ellora, and Elephanta; and the temple sites at Madurai, Thanjavur, Abu, Bhubaneswar, Konarak, and Mahabalipuram. For other aspects of Indian culture, see Hindu music; Indian art and architecture; Indian literature; Mughal art and architecture; Pali canon; Prakrit literature; Sanskrit literature.

Economy

Economically, India often seems like two separate countries: village India, supported by primitive agriculture, where tens of millions—one fourth of population—live below the poverty line; and urban India, one of the most heavily industrialized areas in the world, with an increasingly middle-class population. Agriculture (about 55% of the land is arable) makes up some 25% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and employs almost 70% of the Indian people. Vast quantities of rice are grown wherever the land is level and water plentiful; other crops are wheat, pulses, sugarcane, jowar (sorghum), bajra (a cereal), and corn. Cotton, tobacco, oilseeds, and jute are the principal nonfood crops. There are large tea plantations in Assam, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. The opium poppy is also grown, both for the legal pharmaceutical market and the illegal drug trade; cannabis is produced as well.

Fragmentation of holdings, outmoded methods of crop production, and delays in acceptance of newer, high-yielding grains were characteristic of Indian agriculture in the past, but since the Green Revolution of the 1970s, significant progress has been made in these areas. Improved irrigation, the introduction of chemical fertilizers, and the use of high-yield strains of rice and wheat have led to record harvests, and India became an net exporter of grain in the early 1980s. The subsistence-level existence of village India, ever threatened by drought, flood, famine, and disease, has been somewhat alleviated by government agricultural modernization efforts, but although India's gross food output is sufficient for the the needs of its enormous population, government price supports and an inadequate distribution system still threaten many impoverished Indians with hunger and starvation. An estimated 40% of the population is too poor to afford adequate nourishment regularly.

India has perhaps more cattle per capita than any other country, but their economic value is severely limited by the Hindu prohibition against their slaughter. Goats and sheep are raised in the arid regions of the west and northwest. Water buffalo are raised and there is a large fish catch.

India has forested mountain slopes, with stands of oak, pine, sal, teak, ebony, palms, and bamboo, and the cutting of timber is a major rural occupation. Aside from coal, iron, mica, manganese, and ilmenite, in which the country ranks high, India's mineral resources, although large, are not as yet fully exploited. The Chota Nagpur Plateau of S Jharkhand and the hill lands of SW West Bengal, N Orissa, and Chhattisgarh are the most important mining areas; they are the source of coal, iron, mica, and copper. There are workings of magnesite, bauxite, chromite, salt, and gypsum. Despite oil fields in Assam and Gujarat states and the output (since the 1970s) of Bombay High offshore oil fields, India is deficient in petroleum.

Industry in India, traditionally limited to agricultural processing and light manufacturing, especially of cotton, woolen, and silk textiles, jute, and leather products, has been greatly expanded and diversified in recent years; it employs about 15% of the workforce. There are large textile works at Mumbai and Ahmadabad, a huge iron and steel complex (mainly controlled by the Tata family) at Jamshedpur, and steel plants at Rourkela, Bhilainagar, Durgapur, and Bokaro. Bangalore has electronics and armaments industries. India also produces large amounts of machine tools, transportation equipment, chemicals, and cut diamonds (it is the world's largest exporter of the latter) and has a significant computer software industry. Its large film industry is concentrated in Mumbai, with other centers in Kolkata and Chennai. In the 1990s the government departed from its traditional policy of self-reliant industrial activity and development and worked to deregulate Indian industry and attract foreign investment. Since then the service industries have grown; international call centers provide employment for an increasing number of workers.

Most towns are connected by state-owned railroad systems, one of the most extensive networks in the world. The train system is made mainly of broad-gauge track (5 ft/2 m) but includes a variety of rail gauges, which makes frequent transshipment necessary; the country is in the process of converting all tracks to broad gauge. Transportation by road is increasing, with the improvement of highways and the introduction of ordinary and luxury bus service on long-distance routes, but in rural India the bullock cart is still an important means of transportation. There are international airports at New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai. The leading ports are Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Kochi, and Vishakhapatnam. The leading exports are gems and jewelry, clothing, engineering goods, chemicals, computer software, cotton thread, fabric, and handicrafts. The chief imports are machinery, petroleum, fertilizers, and chemicals. India's major trade partners are the United States, European Union countries, Hong Kong, Kuwait, Saudia Arabia, and Japan.

Government

India is a federal state with a parliamentary form of government. It is governed under the 1949 constitution (effective since Jan., 1950). The president of India is elected for a five-year term by the elected members of the federal and state parliaments. Theoretically the president possesses full executive power, but that power actually is exercised by the prime minister (head of the majority party in the federal Parliament) and council of ministers (which includes the cabinet), who are appointed by the president. The ministers are responsible to the lower house of Parliament (Lok Sabha) and must be members of Parliament.

The federal parliament is bicameral. The upper house, the council of states (Rajya Sabha), consists of a maximum of 250 members; the great majority are apportioned by state—each state's delegates are chosen by its elected assembly—and 12 members are appointed by the president. In addition, one member represents the union territory of Pondicherry. One third of the members retire every other year. The lower house is elected every five years, although it may be dissolved earlier by the president. It is composed of no more than 545 members apportioned among the states. There is a supreme court appointed by the president.

State governors are appointed by the president for five-year terms. States have either unicameral or bicameral parliaments and have jurisdiction over police and public order, agriculture, education, public health, and local government. The federal government has jurisdiction over any matter not specifically reserved for the states. In addition the president may intervene in state affairs during emergencies and may even suspend a state's government.

Until the 1990s the Congress party generally dominated Indian politics. Other major parties include the Janata Dal party, the Bharatiya Janata party, the Communist party of India/Marxist, and the Communist party of India. There are also significant regional parties.

History

The historical discussion that follows deals, until Indian independence, with the Indian subcontinent, which includes the regions that are now Bangladesh and Pakistan, and thereafter concentrates on the history of India.

From the Indus Valley to the Fall of the Mughal Empire

One of the earliest civilizations of the world, and the most ancient on the Indian subcontinent, was the Indus valley civilization, which flourished c.2500 B.C. to c.1700 B.C. It was an extensive and highly sophisticated culture, its chief urban centers being Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. While the causes of the decline of the Indus Valley civilization are not clear, it is possible that the periodic shifts in the courses of the major rivers of the valley may have deprived the cities of floodwaters necessary for their surrounding agricultural lands. The cities thus became more vulnerable to raiding activity. At the same time, Indo-Aryan peoples were migrating into the Indian subcontinent through the northwestern mountain passes, settling in the Punjab and the Ganges valley.

Over the next 2,000 years the Indo-Aryans developed a Brahmanic civilization (see Veda), out of which Hinduism evolved. From Punjab they spread east over the Gangetic plain and by c.800 B.C. were established in Bihar, Jharkhand, and Bengal. The first important Aryan kingdom was Magadha, with its capital near present-day Patna; it was there, during the reign of Bimbisara (540–490 B.C.), that the founders of Jainism and Buddhism preached. Kosala was another kingdom of the period.

In 327–325 B.C., Alexander the Great invaded the province of Gandhara in NW India that had been a part of the Persian empire. The Greek invaders were eventually driven out by Chandragupta of Magadha, founder of the Mauryan empire (see Maurya). The Mauryan emperor Asoka (d. 232 B.C.), Chandragupta's grandson, perhaps the greatest ruler of the ancient period, unified all of India except the southern tip. Under Asoka, Buddhism was widely propagated and spread to Sri Lanka and SE Asia. During the 200 years of disorder and invasions that followed the collapse of the Mauryan state (c.185 B.C.), Buddhism in India declined. S India enjoyed greater prosperity than the north, despite almost incessant warfare; among the Tamil-speaking kingdoms of the south were the Pandya and Chola states, which maintained an overseas trade with the Roman Empire.

Indian culture was spread through the Malay Archipelago and Indonesia by traders from the S Indian kingdoms. Meanwhile, Greeks following Alexander had settled in Bactria (in the area of present-day Afghanistan) and established an Indo-Greek kingdom. After the collapse (1st cent. B.C.) of Bactrian power, the Scythians, Parthians, Afghans, and Kushans swept into NW India. There, small states arose and disappeared in quick succession; among the most famous of these kingdoms was that of the Kushans, which, under its sovereign Kanishka, enjoyed (2d cent. A.D.) great prosperity.

In the 4th and 5th cent. A.D., N India experienced a golden age under the Gupta dynasty, when Indian art and literature reached a high level. Gupta splendor rose again under the emperor Harsha of Kanauj (c.606–647), and N India enjoyed a renaissance of art, letters, and theology. It was at this time that the noted Chinese pilgrim Hsüan-tsang visited India. While the Guptas ruled the north in this, the classical period of Indian history, the Pallava kings of Kanchi held sway in the south, and the Chalukyas controlled the Deccan.

During the medieval period (8th–13th cent.) several independent kingdoms, notably the Palas of Bihar and Bengal, the Sen, the Ahoms of Assam, a later Chola empire at Tanjore, and a second Chalukya dynasty in the Deccan, waxed powerful. In NW India, beyond the reach of the medieval dynasties, the Rajputs had grown strong and were able to resist the rising forces of Islam. Islam was first brought to Sind, W India, in the 8th cent. by seafaring Arab traders; by the 10th cent. Muslim armies from the north were raiding India. From 999 to 1026, Mahmud of Ghazna several times breached Rajput defenses and plundered India.

In the 11th and 12th cent. Ghaznavid power waned, to be replaced c.1150 by that of the Turkic principality of Ghor. In 1192 the legions of Ghor defeated the forces of Prithivi Raj, and the Delhi Sultanate, the first Muslim kingdom in India, was established. The sultanate eventually reduced to vassalage almost every independent kingdom on the subcontinent, except that of Kashmir and the remote kingdoms of the south. The task of ruling such a vast territory proved impossible; difficulties in the south with the state of Vijayanagar, the great Hindu kingdom, and the capture (1398) of the city of Delhi by Timur finally brought the sultanate to an end.

The Muslim kingdoms that succeeded it were defeated by a Turkic invader from Afghanistan, Babur, a remote descendant of Timur, who, after the battle of Panipat in 1526, founded the Mughal empire. The empire was consolidated by Akbar and reached its greatest territorial extent, the control of almost all of India, under Aurangzeb (ruled 1659–1707). Under the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal empire a large Muslim following grew and a new culture evolved in India (see Mughal art and architecture); Islam, however, never supplanted Hinduism as the faith of the majority.

The Arrival of the Europeans

Only a few years before Babur's triumph, Vasco da Gama had landed at Calicut (1498) and the Portuguese had conquered Goa (1510). The splendor and wealth of the Mughal empire (from it comes much of India's greatest architecture, including the Taj Mahal) attracted British, Dutch, and French competition for the trade that Portugal had at first monopolized. The British East India Company (see East India Company, British), which established trading stations at Surat (1613), Bombay (now Mumbai; 1661), and Calcutta (now Kolkata; 1691), soon became dominant and with its command of the sea drove off the traders of Portugal and Holland. While the Mughal empire remained strong, only peaceful trade relations with it were sought; but in the 18th cent., when an Afghan invasion, dynastic struggles, and incessant revolts of Hindu elements, especially the Marathas, were rending the empire, Great Britain and France seized the opportunity to increase trade and capture Indian wealth, and each attempted to oust the other. From 1746 to 1763, India was a battleground for the forces of the two powers, each attaching to itself as many native rulers as possible in the struggle.

India under British Rule

Robert Clive's defeat of the Nawab of Bengal at Plassey in 1757 traditionally marks the beginning of the British Empire in India (recognized in the Treaty of Paris of 1763). Warren Hastings, Clive's successor and the first governor-general of the company's domains to be appointed by Parliament, did much to consolidate Clive's conquests. By 1818 the British controlled nearly all of India south of

相关思考练习题：

题1：新加坡小印度 怎么去

点拨：地铁：地铁紫线，小印度站(Little India);公交车：在乌节路(Orchard Road)乘新巴64号、65号或111号公共汽车到实龙岗路。 开放时间： 最好是晚上去，但是要注意避开周六和周日的晚上，因为那两天是当地的印度、孟加拉和斯里兰卡男人聚集的时间。

题2：樟宜机场到小印度站需要多长时间 另外新加坡的地铁营

点拨： 公交线路：East West Line → East West Line → Downtown Line，全程约19.4公里 1、从新加坡樟宜机场步行约850米,到达Changi Airport站 2、乘坐East West Line,经过2站, 到达Tanah Merah站 3、乘坐East West Line,经过8站, 到达Bugis站 4、乘坐D...

题3：新加坡的小印度和吉隆坡的小印度，哪个好玩一些

点拨：都差不多. 打个比方, 你觉得成都和重庆的万达会有什么不同. 其实吉隆坡到新加坡大概还没有成都到重庆远. 但是我觉得至少不会像 唐人街 , 有点专宰国人的感觉.

题4：新加坡新加坡小印度要门票吗

点拨：不需要门票，小印度是一个地方的名字，里面主要是一些印度文化的东西

题5：新加坡 小印度 甘榜格南 哪个好

点拨：两个地方，各有特色，小印度可以探视新加坡印度族群的传统生活习俗，甘榜格南为新加坡马来族群的昔日积聚地方，可了解新加坡旧时历史面貌，都是不错的景观。

模拟联合国

英语教育论文